This fall, nearly a quarter of a million female student-athletes returned to their college campuses to resume their academic and athletic pursuits. The fall offers a new start to many athletic seasons and a fresh start for students and student-athletes alike. For those engaging in Name, Image, and Likeness (NIL) opportunities, the season offers a chance to focus on entrepreneurial activities and grow their online followings in hopes of securing more deals during their competitive seasons in a climate with never-before-witnessed opportunities. It also presents a series of challenges for female athletes that we explore in our work.

What is NIL?

Name, Image, and Likeness (NIL) legislation, enacted on July 1, 2021, created a new era where student-athletes are now able to directly profit from their personal brands through endorsements, sponsorships, and other business ventures. Prior to state and NCAA regulations permitting NIL activity, such opportunities were prohibited for student-athletes based on the idea of college athlete amateurism, while athletic programs and the NCAA retained the right to use athletes’ NILs indefinitely.

With the end of the amateurism model, student-athletes gained access to opportunities once reserved for professional athletes. However, patterns of gender inequality quickly surfaced. For many women, NIL engagement required participation in both athletic and aesthetic labor, whereas men often secured deals based primarily on athletic performance alone.

In our article published in The Journal for Business Venturing Insights, we explore how female student-athletes navigate the NIL space and how they perceive their own labor as well as the work of others.

Study overview

Using a qualitative approach, we interviewed 16 current and former female student-athletes. We employed photo elicitation and empathy mapping to gain a deeper understanding of the opportunities, needs, and challenges they face in NIL participation. Students were first asked to share their NIL content and thoughts. Next, they were provided with a picture of NIL icon Livvy Dunne, a standout gymnast and influencer who has amassed millions via NIL engagement. She also embodies characteristics some scholars have called the ‘gold standard’ of beauty – white, thin, and conventionally attractive.

Our methods to elicit student perspectives on the NIL landscape provided insight into the complex realities of female athletes’ entrepreneurial work, shaping more informed questions and supporting meaningful change. Our findings illuminate the lived experiences of these athletes and contribute to a broader understanding of their entrepreneurial journeys.

Female student-athlete engagement in NIL

Our research identified three central themes: how athletes feel about their own NIL work, how they perceive the work of other female student-athletes, and the resources they need for sustained success. Overall, participants expressed positive views of their NIL experiences, citing both financial rewards and future business prospects as key motivators. For example, one athlete notes, “I have been doing influencer work since high school, so I’ve been doing it for so long and I just continued, I just didn’t stop. To get money, like, you know, to pay for school, or if I want to go out for dinner with my friends that week. I literally cannot get a job. I don’t have a day or a moment to spare. I think it’s a fantastic opportunity for student-athletes to make money.”

When reflecting on the NIL work of others, themes of body work and sexualization also emerged.

Participants held mixed opinions about athletes who embraced more sexualized self-representations, but acknowledged that recognizing this expectation helped them define how they wanted to present themselves. One athlete pondered, “I can say this for me, like throwers, we’re big people. Are they more likely to sponsor a 6′2’’ lesbian or are they more likely to sponsor a 5′, 130-pound sprinter that looks good on camera?” As such, many viewed highly sexualized content as “about the money” rather than an authentic representation of student-athletes.

The most significant challenges identified were securing NIL deals and balancing the competing demands of being students, athletes, and entrepreneurs. We argue that institutions could play a crucial role by providing targeted education and support, particularly in areas such as brand development, time management, and contract negotiation, to address these needs. As NIL becomes an established part of collegiate athletics, such support is essential.

Why this matters

NIL marks a transformative moment in college sports, creating opportunities for student-athletes to develop business acumen while granting them greater agency over their careers and personal identities. However, it also introduces new complexities as they navigate overlapping roles.

While NIL is unique to student-athletes, its entrepreneurial demands mirror those of the broader influencer economy. Social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok continue to fuel demand for influencer content, and companies increasingly recognize the value of partnerships with college-aged individuals. The rise of “college ambassador” programs, particularly those targeting young women, reflects this trend.

Understanding the nature of NIL work and the challenges associated with it is critical to supporting these young entrepreneurs. By examining the needs and realities of female student-athletes, our research offers valuable insights that extend beyond sports, shedding light on the evolving landscape of influencer labor.

Read the full paper here: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352673425000484

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Author Bio

Marisa Gonzales an independent scholar who recently completed her Ph D at the University of North Texas. She studies college athletes and NIL, specifically how entrepreneurial engagement is impacted by race and gender.

Jeremy Short is the G. Brint Ryan Chair in Entrepreneurship at the University of North Texas. His research examines social entrepreneurship, crowdfunding, and entrepreneurial communities.